Londinium, the capital of Britannia

The most senior strata of citizens in any Roman town were those of the government and other landed gentry. A tradesperson must have disposed of his business and invested in land and property to mix in the highest circles. The senior and middling officials who worked within the government buildings, the Assembly members, and their servants, formed an important part of the upper and middle classes of London. Some were permanent career civil servants who lived all their lives in the town, while others, especially the most senior members of the provincial government, were posted to Britain from other parts of the empire for a specific period of time, perhaps two to three years, together with their families. The highest government officials were normally of the equestrian class, meaning that they were trained in horse-riding skills – what would be called knights during the Middle Ages – and that set them apart from the lower classes. All the posted staff required accommodation during their stay, with the highest officials housed in luxurious villas. More short-term accommodation was provided for government officials and high-ranking army officers visiting or passing through Londinium.

In the first decades of the 2nd century a large stone fort was built to the north-west of the town in the area of the modern-day Barbican. Covering 12 acres it was as big as a small village, and larger than any other permanent Roman fort in the province. It acted as a barracks for as many as 2,000 troops stationed at, or passing through, Londinium, as well as a police force of speculatores. Around its perimeter was a stone wall backed by a rampart of earth and surrounded by a V-shaped ditch. At its corners were defensive towers, with smaller turrets along the walls. Inside were barracks constructed of stone.

Hadrian was unusual amongst Roman emperors in that he travelled to visit most of his provinces to inspect and improve their government. He came to Londinium in 122 AD and many public buildings were built or rebuilt for the occasion. During his reign a large forum, about four times as large as the previous one, was constructed adjoining the basilica to form three sides of a large piazza containing an open market. It was the commercial centre of Londinium, with shops and offices. It was built of Kentish ragstone, with plastered walls and Roman-style tiled roofs and its entrance was around the location where Gracechurch Street today crosses Lombard and Fenchurch Streets. The basilica stood along the north side of the piazza. Surrounding the forum stood warehouses. Public baths and temples were added, and residential areas came into being. Grand houses were appearing as well as other monumental buildings such as theatres and temples. The streets and buildings were adorned by statues and frescos of gods and goddesses.

By the 2^nd century, the simple earth-floored houses of the early Londinium were gone. The average worker probably lived in a home that had a flooring of red ‘tesserae’ or of ‘opus signum’. The former was made of rows of small red cubes set in cement, something like a very basic mosaic in only one colour. The latter was a jumble of broken pottery set in cement and smoothed flat, giving a multi-coloured flooring that was cheap and easy to create. Heating was provided by stoves, ovens or portable charcoal braziers instead of open fires as in the past. Window openings were generally filled with a rough and basic type of glass. Olive oil lamps were common, giving off less fumes than the older animal-fat types. Larger and grander houses had mosaic flooring and underfloor hypocaust heating. The exterior of most houses was whitewashed to provide a brighter and more pleasing aspect. Wooden walkways lined the streets to prevent walking in the muddy roads.

Sometime during the 120s AD a major fire badly damaged or destroyed much of Londinium. Excavated ash appears to show that it began to the north-west of the Walbrook and spread in a south-easterly direction, probably fuelled by a wind. It caused the greatest damage to the east of the Walbrook stream, and south of the forum, as well as around the northern bridgehead, ending sharply at Mark Lane. During Boudicca’s rebellion of the 60s most of the buildings were constructed from wood and plaster and that fire completely obliterated the town. When the new fire struck, most of the buildings in that riverside and central area were built of stone and brick and, although much damage was clearly done, it was possible to simply repair or rebuild on existing foundations.

During the 2nd century many large mansions were built as well as more modest residences and workshops. There is evidence of luxurious homes belonging to the wealthy who adorned them with elaborate mosaics and decorated walls and filled them with fine furniture. Around that time the north of the town around Bishopsgate was redeveloped and more than ten fine floorings belonging to one or more houses have been unearthed so far in that area. In contrast, it appears that the wealthy did not build their homes in the east, south east, south west and upper Walbrook areas which are more likely to be used for housing for the poorer classes and possibly workshops and warehouses. New building work took place during the 3rd century, with the marshy Walbrook area drained and built upon, and new public buildings erected in the south west of the town.